Unraveling ADHD: Evidence, controversies, and new therapeutic opportunities
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.56294/neuro2025190Keywords:
ADHD, Attention-Deficit Disorder, Hyperactivity, Impulsivity, InattentionAbstract
Introduction. ADHD is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders, affecting millions of children and adults worldwide. The significance of ADHD extends far beyond its prevalence. It impacts multiple areas of life, including academic achievement, job performance, relationships, and mental health. Significant challenges remain in terms of diagnosis and treatment. Methods. A search for information was conducted from January to June 2025 in the databases SciELO, Scopus, PubMed/MedLine, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library, as well as Clinical Keys services. From the resulting documents, those written in the last 10 years were selected; this time range was prioritized; some systematic reviews covered broader periods, such as the last 5 years, the last 10 years, or even did not apply a specific date limit. Conclusions. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) represents a multifactorial challenge that transcends the clinical context to involve neurobiological, psychosocial, and cultural dimensions. Empowering patients and their families through psychoeducation strengthens understanding of the disorder, especially in vulnerable populations such as children, adolescents, and young adults. Investing in research, therapeutic innovation, and equitable public policies will be key to transforming ADHD care into a real opportunity to improve the quality of life for those who suffer from it.
References
1. Thapar A, Cooper M. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The Lancet. 2016 Mar;387(10024):1240–50. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(15)00238-x
2. Furman L. What Is Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? J Child Neurol. 2005 Dec;20(12):994–1002. Available at:https://doi.org/10.1177/08830738050200121301
3. Xu G, Strathearn L, Liu B, Yang B, Bao W. Twenty-Year Trends in Diagnosed Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Among US Children and Adolescents, 1997-2016. JAMA Netw Open. 2018 Aug 31;1(4):e181471. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1471
4. Frick PJ, Lahey BB. The Nature and Characteristics of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. School Psychology Review. 1991 June 1;20(2):163–73. Available at:https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.1991.12085543
5. Murphy K, Barkley RA. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder adults: Comorbidities and adaptive impairments. Comprehensive Psychiatry. 1996 Nov;37(6):393–401. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-440x(96)90022-x
6. Heiligenstein E, Guenther G, Levy A, Savino F, Fulwiler J. Psychological and Academic Functioning in College Students With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of American College Health. 1999 Jan 1;47(4):181–5. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/07448489909595644
7. French B, Nalbant G, Wright H, Sayal K, Daley D, Groom MJ, et al. The impacts associated with having ADHD: an umbrella review. Front Psychiatry. 2024 May 21;15:1343314. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1343314
8. Biederman J, Faraone SV. The effects of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder on employment and household income. Medscape Gen Med. 2006;8(3):12. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1781280/
9. Eakin L, Minde K, Hechtman L, Ochs E, Krane E, Bouffard R, et al. The marital and family functioning of adults with ADHD and their spouses. J Atten Disord. 2004 Aug;8(1):1–10. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/108705470400800101
10. Poddar A, Gaddam S, Sonnaila S, Bavaraju VSM, Agrawal S. Unraveling Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Etiology: Current Challenges and Future Directions in Treatment. NeuroSci. 2025 May 6;6(2):41. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/neurosci6020041
11. Poddar A, Gaddam S, Sonnaila S, Bavaraju VSM, Agrawal S. Unraveling Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Etiology: Current Challenges and Future Directions in Treatment. NeuroSci. 2025 May 6;6(2):41. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/neurosci6020041
12. Asherson P, Akehurst R, Kooij JJS, Huss M, Beusterien K, Sasané R, et al. Under Diagnosis of Adult ADHD: Cultural Influences and Societal Burden. J Atten Disord. 2012 July;16(5_suppl):20S-38S. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054711435360
13. Chan E, Zhan C, Homer CJ. Health Care Use and Costs for Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: National Estimates From the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002 May 1;156(5):504. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.156.5.504
14. Doshi JA, Hodgkins P, Kahle J, Sikirica V, Cangelosi MJ, Setyawan J, et al. Economic Impact of Childhood and Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in the United States. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2012 Oct;51(10):990-1002.e2. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.07.008
15. Gupte-Singh K, Singh RR, Lawson KA. Economic Burden of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder among Pediatric Patients in the United States. Value in Health. 2017 Apr;20(4):602–9. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jval.2017.01.007
16. Holden SE, Jenkins-Jones S, Poole CD, Morgan CL, Coghill D, Currie CJ. The prevalence and incidence, resource use and financial costs of treating people with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the United Kingdom (1998 to 2010). Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2013 Dec;7(1):34. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-7-34
17. Matza LS, Paramore C, Prasad M. A review of the economic burden of ADHD. Cost Eff Resour Alloc. 2005 June 9;3(1):5. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/1478-7547-3-5
18. Wolraich ML, Hagan JF, Allan C, Chan E, Davison D, Earls M, et al. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics. 2019 Oct 1;144(4):e20192528. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-2528
19. American Psychiatric Association. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed, text revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2022. p. 68.
20. Applegate B, Lahey BB, Hart EL, Biederman J, Hynd GW, Barkley RA, et al. Validity of the age-of-onset criterion for ADHD: a report from the DSM-IV field trials. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997 Sept;36(9):1211–21. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9291722/
21. Sibley MH, Pelham WE, Molina BSG, Gnagy EM, Waschbusch DA, Garefino AC, et al. Diagnosing ADHD in adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2012 Feb;80(1):139–50. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026577
22. Nigg JT, Blaskey LG, Huang-Pollock CL, Rappley MD. Neuropsychological Executive Functions and DSM-IV ADHD Subtypes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2002 Jan;41(1):59–66. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200201000-00012
23. Weiler MD, Bernstein JH, Bellinger DC, Waber DP. Processing Speed in Children With Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Inattentive Type. Child Neuropsychology. 2000 Sept;6(3):218–34. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.6.3.218.3156
24. DSM-IV field trials for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. AJP. 1994 Nov 1;151(11):1673–85. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.151.11.1673
25. Holbrook JR, Cuffe SP, Cai B, Visser SN, Forthofer MS, Bottai M, et al. Persistence of Parent-Reported ADHD Symptoms From Childhood Through Adolescence in a Community Sample. J Atten Disord. 2016 Jan;20(1):11–20. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054714539997
26. Kemper AR, Maslow GR, Hill S, et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and treatment in children and adolescents. Comparative Effectiveness Review No. 203. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2018 Jan. Report No.: 18-EHC005-EF. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29558081/
27. Hoza B. Peer Functioning in Children With ADHD. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 2007 May 28;32(6):655–63. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsm024
28. Taylor E, Döpfner, M, Sergeant J, Asherson P, Banaschewski T, Buitelaar J, et al. European clinical guidelines for hyperkinetic disorder ? first upgrade. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry [Internet]. 2004 July [cited 2025 Aug 7];13(S1). Available at: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00787-004-1002-x
29. Pliszka S. Practice Parameter for the Assessment and Treatment of Children and Adolescents With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2007 July;46(7):894–921. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097/chi.0b013e318054e724
30. Ferguson JH. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement: Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2000 Feb;39(2):182–93. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200002000-00018
31. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (Great Britain). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and management. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence; 14. 1 p. (NICE guideline).
32. Sedky K, Bennett DS, Carvalho KS. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and sleep disordered breathing in pediatric populations: A meta-analysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews. 2014 Aug;18(4):349–56. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2013.12.003
33. Sleator EK, Ullmann RK. Can the physician diagnose hyperactivity in the office? Pediatrics. 1981;67(1):13-7. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7243422/
34. Zhang N, Gao M, Yu J, Zhang Q, Wang W, Zhou C, et al. Understanding the association between adverse childhood experiences and subsequent attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of observational studies. Brain and Behavior. 2022 Oct;12(10):e32748. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.2748
35. Crouch E, Radcliff E, Bennett KJ, Brown MJ, Hung P. Examining the Relationship Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and ADHD Diagnosis and Severity. Academic Pediatrics. 2021 Nov;21(8):1388–94. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2021.03.009
36. Koolwijk I, Stein DS, Chan E, Powell C, Driscoll K, Barbaresi WJ. “Complex” Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, More Norm Than Exception? Diagnoses and Comorbidities in a Developmental Clinic. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics. 2014 Nov;35(9):591–7. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097/dbp.0000000000000109
37. Barbaresi WJ, Campbell L, Diekroger EA, Froehlich TE, Liu YH, O’Malley E, et al. Society for Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics Clinical Practice Guideline for the Assessment and Treatment of Children and Adolescents with Complex Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2020 Feb;41(2S):S35–57. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097/dbp.0000000000000770
38. Goldman LS. Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents. JAMA. 1998 Apr 8;279(14):1100. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.279.14.1100
39. Power TJ, Costigan TE, Leff SS, Eiraldi RB, Landau S. Assessing ADHD Across Settings: Contributions of Behavioral Assessment to Categorical Decision Making. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 2001 Aug;30(3):399–412. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3003_11
40. Rapoport JL, Buchsbaum MS, Zahn TP, Weingartner H, Ludlow C, Mikkelsen EJ. Dextroamphetamine: Cognitive and Behavioral Effects in Normal Prepubertal Boys. Science. 1978 Feb 3;199(4328):560–3. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.341313
41. Peloquin LJ, Klorman R. Effects of methylphenidate on normal children’s mood, event-related potentials, and performance in memory scanning and vigilance. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1986 Feb;95(1):88–98. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.95.1.88
42. World Health Organization. 6A05 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In: International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems. 11th ed. (Version 02/2022). Geneva: World Health Organization; 2022. Available at: https://icd.who.int/browse/2025-01/mms/en#821852937
43. Lahey BB, Pelham WE, Loney J, Kipp H, Ehrhardt A, Lee SS, et al. Three-Year Predictive Validity of DSM-IV Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children Diagnosed at 4–6 Years of Age. AJP. 2004 Nov 1;161(11):2014–20. Available at:
44. Campbell SB, Ewing LJ, Breaux AM, Szumowski EK. PARENT‐REFERRED PROBLEM THREE‐YEAR‐OLDS: FOLLOW‐UP AT SCHOOL ENTRY. Child Psychology Psychiatry. 1986 July;27(4):473–88. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1986.tb00635.x
45. Mcgee R, Partridge F, Williams S, Silva PA. A Twelve-Year Follow-up of Preschool Hyperactive Children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 1991 Mar;30(2):224–32. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199103000-00010
46. Riddle MA, Yershova K, Lazzaretto D, Paykina N, Yenokyan G, Greenhill L, et al. The Preschool Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Treatment Study (PATS) 6-Year Follow-Up. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2013 Mar;52(3):264-278.e2. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.12.007
47. Law EC, Sideridis GD, Prock LA, Sheridan MA. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Young Children: Predictors of Diagnostic Stability. Pediatrics. 2014 Apr 1;133(4):659–67. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-3433
48. Bélanger SA, Andrews D, Gray C, Korczak D. ADHD in children and youth: Part 1—Etiology, diagnosis, and comorbidity. Paediatrics & Child Health. 2018 Oct 24;23(7):447–53. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/pxy109
49. Munzer TG, Miller AL, Brophy-Herb HE, Peterson KE, Horodynski MA, Contreras D, et al. Characteristics Associated With Parent–Teacher Concordance on Child Behavior Problem Ratings in Low-Income Preschoolers. Academic Pediatrics. 2018 May;18(4):452–9. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2017.10.006
50. Adler LA, Newcorn JH. Administering and Evaluating the Results of the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) in Adolescents. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011 June 15;72(06):e20. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.10081tx2c
51. Smith BH, Pelham WE, Gnagy E, Molina B, Evans S. The reliability, validity, and unique contributions of self-report by adolescents receiving treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2000 June;68(3):489–99. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.68.3.489
52. Sibley MH, Rohde LA, Swanson JM, Hechtman LT, Molina BSG, Mitchell JT, et al. Late-Onset ADHD Reconsidered With Comprehensive Repeated Assessments Between Ages 10 and 25. AJP. 2018 Feb 1;175(2):140–9. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17030298
53. Ra CK, Cho J, Stone MD, De La Cerda J, Goldenson NI, Moroney E, et al. Association of Digital Media Use With Subsequent Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Among Adolescents. JAMA. 2018 July 17;320(3):255. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.8931
54. Radesky J. Digital Media and Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Adolescents. JAMA. 2018 July 17;320(3):237. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.8932
55. Novak SP, Kroutil LA, Williams RL, Van Brunt DL. The nonmedical use of prescription ADHD medications: results from a national Internet panel. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2007 Dec;2(1):32. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/1747-597x-2-32
56. Charach A, Carson P, Fox S, Ali MU, Beckett J, Lim CG. Interventions for Preschool Children at High Risk for ADHD: A Comparative Effectiveness Review. Pediatrics. 2013 May 1;131(5):e1584–604. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-0974
57. Wilms Floet AM, Scheiner C, Grossman L. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatrics In Review. 2010 Feb 1;31(2):56–69. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1542/pir.31-2-56
58. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and management. NICE guideline [NG87]. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence; 2018 Mar, updated 2019 Sep. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/NG87
59. Kolko DJ, Bukstein OG, Barron J. Methylphenidate and Behavior Modification in Children With ADHD and Comorbid ODD or CD: Main and Incremental Effects Across Settings. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 1999 May;38(5):578–86. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199905000-00020
60. Carlson CL, Pelham WE, Milich R, Dixon J. Single and combined effects of methylphenidate and behavior therapy on the classroom performance of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1992 Apr;20(2):213–32. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00916549
61. Dulcan M. Practice Parameters for the Assessment and Treatment of Children, Adolescents, and Adults With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 1997 Oct;36(10):85S-121S. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199710001-00007
62. Kaplan A, Adesman A. Clinical diagnosis and management of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in preschool children. Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 2011 Dec;23(6):684–92. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097/mop.0b013e32834cbbba
63. Groenman AP, Hornstra R, Hoekstra PJ, Steenhuis L, Aghebati A, Boyer BE, et al. An Individual Participant Data Meta-analysis: Behavioral Treatments for Children and Adolescents With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2022 Feb;61(2):144–58. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2021.02.024
64. Dekkers TJ, Hornstra R, Van Der Oord S, Luman M, Hoekstra PJ, Groenman AP, et al. Meta-analysis: Which Components of Parent Training Work for Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2022 Apr;61(4):478–94. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2021.06.015
65. Klassen A, Miller A, Raina P, Lee SK, Olsen L. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Youth: A Quantitative Systematic Review of the Efficacy of Different Management Strategies. Can J Psychiatry. 1999 Dec;44(10):1007–16. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/070674379904401007
66. Brown RT, Amler RW, Freeman WS, Perrin JM, Stein MT, Feldman HM, et al. Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Overview of the Evidence. Pediatrics. 2005 June 1;115(6):e749–57. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2560
67. Zwi M, Jones H, Thorgaard C, York A, Dennis JA. Parent training interventions for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children aged 5 to 18 years. Cochrane Developmental, Psychosocial and Learning Problems Group, editor. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews [Internet]. 2011 Dec 7 [cited 2025 Aug 7]; Available at: https://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/14651858.CD003018.pub3
68. Daley D, Van Der Oord S, Ferrin M, Danckaerts M, Doepfner M, Cortese S, et al. Behavioral Interventions in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials Across Multiple Outcome Domains. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2014 Aug;53(8):835-847.e5. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2014.05.013
69. Goode AP, Coeytaux RR, Maslow GR, Davis N, Hill S, Namdari B, et al. Nonpharmacologic Treatments for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review. Pediatrics. 2018 June 1;141(6):e20180094. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-0094
70. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. Management of attention deficit and hyperkinetic disorders in children and young people. SIGN guideline no. 112. Edinburgh: Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network; 2009. Available at: https://www.sign.ac.uk/guidelines/fulltext/112/index.html
71. Cortese S, Adamo N, Del Giovane C, Mohr-Jensen C, Hayes AJ, Carucci S, Atkinson LZ, Tessari L, Banaschewski T, Coghill D, et al. Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2018;5(9):727-38. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30269-4
72. Catala-Lopez F, Hutton B, Nunez-Beltran A, Page MJ, Ridao M, Macias Saint-Gerons D, Catala MA, Tabares-Seisdedos R, Moher D. The pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a systematic review with network meta-analyses of randomised trials. PLoS One. 2017;12(7):e0180355. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180355
73. Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang G, Ding Y, Gatley SJ. Mechanism of action of methylphenidate: insights from PET imaging studies. J Atten Disord. 2002;6 Suppl 1:S31-43. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370200601S05
74. Kooij JJS, Bijlenga D, Salerno L, Jaeschke R, Bitter I, Balazs J, Thome J, Dom G, Kasper S, Nunes Filipe C, et al. Updated European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD. Eur Psychiatry. 2019;56:14-34. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.11.001
75. Semrud-Clikeman M, Filipek PA, Biederman J, Steingard R, Kennedy D, Renshaw P, Bekken K. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: magnetic resonance imaging morphometric analysis of the corpus callosum. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994;33(6):875-81. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199407000-00014
76. Pitzianti MB, Spiridigliozzi S, Bartolucci E, Esposito S, Pasini A. New insights on the effects of methylphenidate in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Front Psychiatry. 2020;11:531092. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.531092
77. Connor DF, Steingard RJ. New formulations of stimulants for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: therapeutic potential. CNS Drugs. 2004;18(14):1011-30. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200418140-00005
78. Frampton JE. Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate: a review in paediatric ADHD. Drugs. 2018;78(10):1025-36. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-018-0936-0
79. Hutson PH, Pennick M, Secker R. Preclinical pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and toxicology of lisdexamfetamine: a novel d-amphetamine pro-drug. Neuropharmacology. 2014;87:41-50. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.07.001
80. Ekstrand E, Murphy HM, Wideman CH. The effects of the prodrug Vyvanse on spatial working memory and adiposity in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2019;186:172765. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2019.172765
81. Garnock-Jones KP, Keating GM. Atomoxetine: a review of its use in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Paediatr Drugs. 2009;11(3):203-26. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2165/00148581-200911030-00005
82. Kratochvil CJ, Bohac D, Harrington M, Baker N, May D, Burke WJ. An open-label trial of tomoxetine in pediatric attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2001;11(2):167-70. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1089/104454601750284090
83. Cortese S, Coghill D. Twenty years of research on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): looking back, looking forward. Evid Based Ment Health. 2018;21(4):173-6. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2018-300050
84. Rivas-Vazquez RA, Diaz SG, Visser MM, Rivas-Vazquez AA. Adult ADHD: underdiagnosis of a treatable condition. J Health Serv Psychol. 2023;49(1):11-9. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42843-022-00070-z
85. Amiri A, Torabi Parizi G, Kousha M, Saadat F, Modabbernia MJ, Najafi K, Atrkar Roushan Z. Changes in plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels induced by methylphenidate in children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2013;47:20-4. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.07.003.
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Fidel Aguilar Medrano, Freddy Ednildon Bautista-Vanegas, Isis Scarleth Funes Galindo , Carmen Julia Salvatierra Rocha, Henrry Temis Quisbert Vasquez, Reyna Georgina-Gonzales , Ingrid Neysa Cabezas-Soliz, Delly Espejo-Alanoca , Jhossmar Cristians Auza-Santivañez (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The article is distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. Unless otherwise stated, associated published material is distributed under the same licence.
